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Pak Studies Geography IGCSEprinted 21 · PDF 21
162 pagesrevision 46929
printed 21 · PDF 21
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settlements (PMD issues marine and coastal warnings, e.g.,
recent Cyclone advisories). Storm paths vary; post-monsoon
seasons (pre & post) produce most events.
Cloudbursts: extremely intense, localized rainfall (e.g.,
>100 mm/hr in a small area) causing flash floods in
mountainous valleys — increasingly reported in recent years
and difficult to forecast with long lead times. Recent deadly
cloudbursts in NW Pakistan underline the hazard.
●Local severe storms: convective thunderstorms, hail and
dust storms (affect crops and transport).
5) Why hazards are increasing (short analysis)
Climate change: higher temperatures intensify atmospheric
moisture; monsoon becomes more variable with more
extreme downpours interspersed by dry spells → greater
flood/drought contrast. Scientific attribution studies link
increasing extremes to warming.
Land-use change & poor watershed management
(deforestation, overgrazing) increases runoff and erosion.
Infrastructure & governance gaps: settlement in
floodplains, weak enforcement of zoning, inadequate urban
drainage.
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